The program continued to expand with the addition of forty teachers in June 1993 and thirty-two teachers in August 1994. A similar application and selection process was conducted. It was during August 1994, two and one half years after its inception, that the EXPLORES! program welcomed its one hundredth school to the program. In June 1993, two of the forty ground stations that were constructed were demonstration/training sites bringing the total number of demonstration/training sites to six. The two additional sites are located at the Withlacoochee Technical Institute (Inverness, FL), and Broward Community College - South Campus (Pembroke Pines, FL). Also in June 1993, the first elementary school was welcomed to the program. Since 1992, one hundred three NOAA direct-readout satellite data ground stations have been installed at elementary, middle, and high schools throughout the state, with five NOAA direct-readout sites located at Brevard Community College, Broward Community College, Tallahassee Community College, the Museum of Science and Industry, and the Florida State University Department of Meteorology. The current breakdown of schools is as follows; six percent in comprehensive training sites (6 comprehensive training sites), five percent in elementary schools (5 elementary schools), forty-eight percent in middle schools (49 middle schools), and forty-two percent in high schools (43 high schools).
Resource Development
After awarding the first set of thirty one ground stations in 1992, an intensive program to develop materials for the teachers and students began. These materials and projects were developed to take advantage of the existing capabilities and facilities of each school selected, and to provide a wide variety of activities for the various educational and interest levels that Florida's diverse school-age population exhibits. Using the resources available to the EXPLORES! staff, an instructional guide to weather satellites and basic meteorological knowledge was created (i.e.; the EXPLORES! Manual). The EXPLORES! manual provides information concerning the history of weather satellites, how satellites are placed in orbit, how they function, their capabilities and instrumentation, as well as basic meteorology topics. Units for the meteorological curriculum include basics such as temperature, humidity, winds, thunderstorms, hurricanes, tornadoes, safety precautions and procedures, regional and local climate, and the hydrologic cycle and its importance, as well as more complicated issues such as radiative transfer, the dispersion of pollution, and global climate change. Pictures and diagrams were used wherever possible to help teachers and students visualize the capabilities of these spaceborne earth-observing stations as related to the Earth's atmosphere and meteorology. It is important that the teachers acquire a good understanding of the various types of meteorological phenomena to accurately train their students. Also included in the EXPLORES! manual is an annotated bibliography on the teaching of meteorology in primary and secondary schools.
The EXPLORES! Workshop
A one-week workshop is held for the participants to gain hands-on knowledge of the ground stations. Teachers are given an honorarium for their participation and stipends to cover travel expenses (food, lodging, and transportation). The workshop includes sessions on basic computer skills, weather phenomena, satellite imagery interpretation, the development of observational skills, field studies, and "play time" on the satellite ground stations. Additional resources such as NOAA Technical Report - NESDIS No. 44, by R. J. Summers (1989), are provided to each participant. This document instructs the teachers and students on how the direct-readout ground station components work to receive satellite signals and how these components transform the signals into visual images. Instructions and training on how to set up the ground station, including installation of computer video and receiver boards and antenna construction, are also provided. Field trips also serve to familiarize the teachers with direct applications of satellite technology. These include visits to operational meteorological and spaceflight facilities at National Weather Service Offices and U.S. Air Force Installations as well as the NASA Visitor Center, NASA Educational Resource Center, and Kennedy Complex launches (if applicable).
Teachers are encouraged to bring their computers with them so they can install the satellite receiving boards themselves. This enables the teachers to ingest their first satellite images on their new ground stations and helps the EXPLORES! staff diagnose any problems that might emerge. With the knowledge and experience gained from the workshop, the ground stations can be used to their maximum capabilities, providing an extraordinary learning experience for both the teachers and students. During the 1992, 1993, and 1994 workshops, many teachers have pointed out to EXPLORES! staff that it is the best workshop that they have ever attended and will recommend participation to all of their colleagues. For a more detailed description of the workshop, please see Appendix C.
Additional Resources and Activities
Specifications for constructing school-made weather stations are also made available to interested industrial arts and vocational skills teachers statewide to augment the overall state science curriculum. In this way, the industrial arts curriculum can complement the earth and space science curriculum, allowing students access to a total hands-on/minds-on educational experience. In addition, some of the network schools are using maximum and minimum thermometers and raingauges to take daily weather observations as part of the Florida Student Weather Network (FSWN) (Ruscher et al. 1994). The meteorological observations collected from this instrumentation allows for ground-truth comparisons between observations of meteorological phenomena from earth-orbiting platforms and surface-based instrumentation, as well as provides the network of National Weather Service offices in Florida with additional cooperative stations which will have the ability to report climatological data. Several students involved in the project are actively involved in meteorological and oceanographic studies, which have evolved into science fair projects. In addition, extracurricular groups are using the ground stations as a centerpiece of their activities. The Florida State University Department of Meteorology is now realizing the importance of the program, as highly qualified students from high schools with these ground stations enter the Undergraduate Meteorology and Physics Degree programs much better qualified to pursue their major than the typical high school graduate.
It is not the intent of the program to delve solely into the area of meteorology, but into all areas of earth and space sciences that can be studied using weather satellite imagery. In addition to the basic meteorological curriculum, ideas for a general science curriculum have been developed to take advantage of the unique earth-observing capabilities of orbiting weather satellites. Educational packets addressing other aspects of earth science such as geography, ocean currents, volcanic eruptions, and forest fires have been prepared. Communication skills, both oral and written, are also addressed in the form of journalism, media center and graphics activities, such as the production of homemade weather shows, newsletters, posters, and pamphlets. However, the focus of this study is to determine how satellite direct-readout has affected student attitude, as well as the attitude and professional development of teachers.
Post-Workshop Support
The FSU Department of Meteorology continues to serve as a consultant to school teachers and students with questions concerning any aspect of the operation or dissemination of information from the direct-readout ground stations. During each workshop, participants are instructed that there are three components to post-workshop support. For two of these components, questions on imagery interpretation and general "how to" operation of the ground station, qualified personnel are always ready and willing to help. However, requests have been made stating that questions related to the ground station hardware, be directed to vendors of the equipment (ground station hardware, computer) or a local computer technician or consultant. In fact, support is supplied to the teachers (as stated in the vendors contract) from the ground station vendors. This opportunity is under-utilized as it has become apparent that the teachers are more comfortable talking with the staff of EXPLORES! instead of the vendors. Additionally, the teachers are discovering that they are not as computer literate as they thought they were. Often, as many as five times a week, the staff of EXPLORES! will receive telephone calls requesting assistance with computer related problems and computer literacy questions. Although we assist in this capacity wherever possible, frustrations expressed by the teacher are typically vented at the EXPLORES! staff.
Present and Future Plans
In 1995 the program continues to expand. The State of Florida is undertaking a program to provide direct-line or modem dial-up full Internet access into all Florida schools. Many of the original participants in this effort are also EXPLORES! participants. In order to meet the needs of these schools in terms of classroom applications for Internet, the program now provides the first Integrated Earth Information Server (IEIS) on the World Wide Web (WWW), dedicated primarily to weather satellite information. The Universal Resource Locator (URL) for the site is: http://thunder.met.fsu.edu/explores/explores.html and may be explored on workstations, Macintosh computers, and IBM Compatible computers using the Mosaic or Netscape software. This "home page" includes satellite imagery, weather data, a history of weather satellites, and curriculum activities.
CHAPTER 3
IMPACTS OF FLORIDA EXPLORES!
A Survey
In order to have a description of how teachers and students learn from the EXPLORES! program, a survey was constructed. The survey was sent out to one hundred six teachers who have been involved with the program during the years 1992 (n=34), 1993 (n=40), and 1994 (n=32). A deadline was imposed stating the last day that surveys would be accepted in order to complete this research in a timely manner. To ensure maximum response, four mailings were sent out; three in electronic form, the other via first class US mail. The first mailing (January 1995) was sent out over FIRN to ninety of the teachers involved with the program (it was determined that sixteen of the participants did not have FIRN accounts as required for participation in the program). An immediate response was received from the electronic postmaster on FIRN stating that eleven of the ninety electronic mailings were being "bounced back". This was due to inactive FIRN accounts (account inactive for more than sixty consecutive days) on the teachers behalf and increased the number of teachers without FIRN accounts to twenty-seven. The second mailing was sent out three days later to all one hundred six teachers via first class US mail. This mailing included a self addressed envelope for ease in return of the questions. One mailing was returned from the post office saying the address was invalid. A third mailing was sent out via FIRN one week prior to the imposed deadline to compensate for any accidental deletions made on a teachers behalf. As previously encountered, the same eleven electronic mail messages were "bounced back". The fourth and final mailing was sent out via FIRN three days prior to the deadline and again the same eleven "bounced back" messages were received from the electronic postmaster.
Based on the recommendations and experience of science educators in the development and implementation of curriculum in the classroom, a questionnaire was developed. The main purpose of the questionnaire was to gather information from teachers about the use of satellite ground station technology in their classrooms and how the program has affected them and their students as educators and learners. Four questions comprised the survey and were stated as follows:
General Survey Results
Out of the sample of one hundred six high school, middle school, and elementary school educators polled, thirty-two responses were received by the deadline. Additionally, ten responses were received within seven days after the imposed deadline for a total of forty-two responses received. This constitutes a response rate of forty percent.
Question 1
Has EXPLORES! and the ground station had an impact in your classroom? If yes, describe the impact and its consequences. Provide specific examples. If no, describe why you think it hasn't had an impact.
Answers to question 1 were categorized by positive, negative, and no impacts. Impacts could be any consequence of the program, including the ground station, that has affected the respondents students and classroom. One hundred percent of the respondents answered question 1. Constraints to "no impact" responses have been included so that they can be critiqued and analyzed. No responses indicated a negative impact. An examination of the data shows that eighty-one percent (34 of 42) responded saying that the program and the ground station have had positive impacts in their classrooms while the remaining nineteen percent (8 of 42) responded saying that no impact had been documented as of the time of this research.
Of those teachers responding with positive impacts in their classrooms, the following general categories were described. The program and the ground station have:
It is readily apparent that these positive impacts have had numerous implications in the respondents classroom environments. Students and teachers alike frequently arrive at school early and stay late in order to use the ground station. The classroom as a whole has been stimulated in a positive manner sparking student, teacher, and parental interest in technology and science.
In two instances local television meteorologists have done their weathercasts from classrooms containing ground stations. In both of these instances, the videotape of these broadcasts have been viewed by national audiences (i.e.; The Weather Channel and CNN). This is not only valuable publicity for the school districts, but enables the students to actually see a live weathercast and interact with not only the television meteorologist, but the camera crews as well. This is always a valuable experience to students when considering their career choices.
Additionally, existing courses have been redesigned and new courses heavily involved in technology have been created to accommodate the ground station. It was apparent in the survey responses that the ground station easily lent itself to the development of these new courses.
Of those teachers responding with no impacts in their classrooms, the following general categories were described:
Of the teachers responding that equipment such as the antenna has not been installed at their schools, it should be noted that in order for this work to be started, county work orders need to be completed. Depending on the county, these work orders can easily take six months to a year before they are filled.
One of the teachers that responded by saying he has not received any post-workshop support from the staff of EXPLORES! has not fulfilled his agreement of acquiring a FIRN account. Therefore communication between EXPLORES! staff and this teacher can be minimal at best. It should also be known that there have been other attempts to reach this teacher through the use of telephone and facsimile communication, but these methods have also been unsuccessful. Also, teachers will frequently make communication attempts during their planning periods. Often at these times, the staff of EXPLORES! will be in class themselves and are unavailable to answer questions at those times. It has now been realized that the program is in desperate need of a full-time director as some of the staff is allotted only seven to nine percent of their academic year responsibilities for the program. Steps are now being taken to address this problem.
Of the teachers responding saying that they were having computer problems, the following situations were noted; hard drive crashes, computer viruses, mother board incompatibilities, disk drive failures, blown fuses on the receiver board, as well as antenna and parabolic dish failures.
It has been realized that inservice programs such as EXPLORES! can not be implemented with out taking into account school policy. Certain aspects of this notion are demonstrated in the fact that it has taken extended periods of time for the installation of phone lines in classrooms and the installation of antennas on roof tops. EXPLORES! staff has also come to realize that some of the excitement demonstrated by many teachers has sometimes been "capped" because of rules, procedures, and red tape that needs to be followed when requesting work orders, or when placing long distance telephone calls. Nevertheless, these teachers continue to pursue their goals of implementing the program in a timely manner by being persistent with their requests to their principals and maintenance staff.
Additionally, after the 1994 workshop, the ground station hardware and software provided during the years 1992 and 1993 (GTI WeatherFax) was determined to be more difficult to work with than the 1994 ground station hardware and software (Quorum Communications QFAX). This notion was verified by many 1992 and 1993 teachers when they received a chance to work with and operate the QFAX system during the 1994 workshop. All teachers raved about its mouse driven presentation and extreme ease of use saying that the learning curve for the QFAX ground station is not nearly as steep as the learning curve for the GTI WeatherFax ground station.
Question 2
When did you honestly feel that you "personally" had a grasp on what EXPLORES! could do for you and your classroom? Why? If never, please describe why you think this is so. Please provide specific examples in either case.
Question 2 responses were categorized by yes or no answers to whether or not the teacher had a grasp. Since the question was of a personal nature, it was left up to the respondents to incorporate their own definition of "grasp" into their responses. Embedded in their responses was also whether or not the teacher had a working knowledge of the ground station. One hundred percent of the respondents answered question 2. Sixty-two percent (24 of 42) of the responding teachers feel that they have a grasp of what the ground station can do for them while the remaining thirty-eight percent (16 of 42) feel that they do not have a grasp yet.
Examples of teachers saying that they have a grasp have been generalized under the following categories:
It can be concluded from these general responses that each teacher is an individual manufacturer of knowledge requiring that they proceed at their own pace to construct the knowledge of how they are going to use and implement the ground station in their classrooms. This concept is analogous when related to their students as each student is an individual as well, constructing knowledge at their own pace.
Additional individual comments were as follows: One teacher was quoted as saying, "I felt like I was stepping ten years into the future when I saw the equipment and program.". Another teacher responded by saying that she got her grasp when she had to make a presentation on the ways science, technology, and telecommunications were used in her classroom saying, "....I realized I was involved in one terrific science technology program that utilized telecommunications and had on line real time scientists working with me and my students." Another teacher responded by saying that "....from day one, I have felt that I was EXPLORES!....what ever I could do, what ever I needed could be arranged. The excitement associated with EXPLORES! was contagious and support was unlimited."
Examples of teachers responses stating that they have not grasped the program and its implications have been generalized. These include:
Initially, repairing and solving computer problems was not part of the programs domain, but every attempt is made to accommodate problems and malfunctions that may occur with teachers ground stations. These include scheduling visits to schools across the state, or having the teacher send their computer to the Department of Meteorology at Florida State University where EXPLORES! staff are able to repair the computer. It should be noted that during the first year of the program (1992), twenty-three computers were purchased on state contract for teachers who were unable to supply the required computer for the program. Roughly half of these computers have, at one time or another, failed in their operation. Some failed while under warranty, while others did not. Many of these computers were sent back to the company for new motherboards. The staff of EXPLORES! now realizes the importance of reliable technical support as correspondence with the computer company was mediocre at best. In addition, because of the lack of correspondence on behalf of the vendor, several of the computers were physically driven by EXPLORES! staff to Houston, TX for repair.
One teacher was quoted as saying that he thought he would never have a complete grasp of the ground station, noting that "this could be a plus for both himself and his students because it teaches that things do not always work the first time and that it takes a lot of trial and error, patience, and experimentation to get what you want." A follow up correspondence with this teacher concluded that this was a connection to his beliefs about the nature of science and scientific inquiry.
Question 3
What has EXPLORES! done for you as an educator?
Responses to question three were both exciting and enlightening as they have shown that pre-college outreach programs like EXPLORES! have made a difference in the professional development of teachers. Teachers wrote back saying that the program has changed their practice, behaviors and attitudes toward teaching, and has enhanced their professional development.
One hundred percent of the respondents answered question 3. In all cases where the ground station was operational, positive impacts of the program were cited. Eighty-three percent (35 of 42) of the respondents were operational as of the time of this research. Many teachers responded by saying that:
Additional comments in support of the teachers professional development were as follows: A teacher responded by saying "I'm not sure whether I'm a better educator, but I am a much better informed educator." Another responded saying "it has given me a new vision for how to facilitate learning and has moved me ahead in the world of technology at lightning speed." Another teacher noted that morale is at an all time low and that programs like EXPLORES! make teachers feel proud and able to contribute to real science rather than being mere disseminators of out-dated textbook material and worksheets. Another teacher noted that the EXPLORES! program was his inspiration to pursue a doctoral degree in science education. Amazingly, one teacher said that she was going to quit after the end of the school year, but because of the EXPLORES! program and the people she had met, she will continue to teach until retirement.
A supplemental anecdote is included for the benefit of the responses to question 3 as the teacher described did not respond to the survey. It was learned by EXPLORES! staff (after the fact) that, prior to the summer workshop, one of the teachers accepted into the program was about to be fired from his position of science teacher. After this teacher returned from the workshop and had a chance to integrate the ground station into his curriculum, he received an award for most improved science teacher for his district at the end of the school year.
Question 4
What has EXPLORES! done for your students? Did any particular group of students have problems? Please be specific about sex and race (White, African-American, Hispanic, Asian, and Native-American).
The responses to question 4 were limited by the number of operational ground stations. It was determined that students in the participants classrooms would not be affected by the ground station if they have not had a chance to work with it. Of the forty-two responses received, forty-five percent (19 of 42) answered both parts of the question, nineteen percent (8 of 42) answered the first part of the question (What has EXPLORES! done for your students?), fourteen percent (6 of 42) answered only the second part of the question (Did any particular group of students have problems?), seventeen percent (7 of 42) did not answer the question at all, and five percent (2 of 42) said that they could not answer the question because their students were not yet actively involved with the operation of the ground station.
Sixty-four percent (27 of 42) of the respondents answered the first part of the question. Their responses related how the program and the ground station has impacted their students. These responses have been generalized into the following categories:
Of the fifty-nine percent (25 of 42) responding to the question on ethnicity and gender, thirty-six percent (9 of 25) said that they did notice gender and ethnic differences while sixty-four percent (16 of 25) said that they did not notice any gender or ethnic differences. One teacher noted that her Hispanic students did not become actively involved with the operation of the ground station, saying that "they seem a little lost or just don't care." Numerous attempts were made for a follow up to this teachers comments about her Hispanic students, but all were unsuccessful.
Two teachers noted that their Hispanic students were having trouble with the ground station because of their lack of English. Further correspondence with one of the teachers revealed that he frequently has to translate notes and tests for his Hispanic students noting that they more easily comprehend their environment when this is done.
Two other teachers said that their Hispanic students were very excited to see pictures of their native homelands noting that the students were happy and sad at the same time; appearing almost homesick. Four teachers (all male) responded saying that male students were generally more interested in the ground station than females while two other teachers (one male and one female) spoke highly of their female students and their enthusiasm for the ground station. Regarding African-American students, one teacher said that they excelled with the ground station to the point where they were intimidating his Anglo students because of their mastery of the ground station, while another noted that his African-American students showed little interest in participating and interacting with the ground station.
The differences in computer knowledge and skills between majority and minority students have been most clearly shown in the national study of computer competence conducted by Educational Testing Service (Resta 1992). Results of the study showed that African-American and Hispanic students had much lower levels of computer competence and interest than their Anglo peers. These deficiencies have been attributed to the socioeconomic status of the average African-American and Hispanic family being much lower than the average Anglo family, therefore these families are less likely to own a home computer. Another factor included the fact that minority students have a lack of role models in the computing community as more than ninety percent of computer teachers are Anglo. The problem of under-representation was particularly acute for Hispanic teachers who composed only one percent of high school computer teachers (Resta 1992).
Similar studies have been conducted in reference to computer knowledge and skills between males and females. These studies have shown that there is a domination of males in computing activities. These differences have been attributed to cultural beliefs that girls are less competent at computing than boys, sex-based differences in the outcomes of computing experience, associations of computing with mathematics, technology and maleness, sex-based differences in the attitudes and behaviors of parents and teachers, and preferences for sex segregation (Clarke 1990). The results of these studies offer some insight into why some minority students and females are not excelling with the use of the ground station. Nonetheless, in order for these concepts to be adequately addressed, a more detailed survey should be developed and researched.
Analysis of Classroom and Student Impacts
A new and exciting environment has been provided which allows students to discover scientific principles on their own. Direct-readout satellite ground stations give students the opportunity to explore and discover scientific principles by actively constructing meaning and testing the viability of their scientific knowledge. They are able to inquire into whether or not their ideas are workable and consistent with others.
What one student recognizes on a satellite image may not necessarily be what another student will recognize. Different students have been handed the same satellite image and both have come up with their own interpretation. In other words, students can work to put knowledge together individually, and then link their ideas by listening and talking to one another. This engages students beyond discovering a fact as they are challenged to evaluate three structures of their knowledge: methodology (strategies), justification (how do you know what you know?), and the perception of which components are under investigation (what is the real problem here?) (Peterson et al. 1987). In essence, they are challenged to evaluate the viability of their knowledge by (1) referring their constructions to authority, (2) coherence, and (3) submitting the new knowledge to an empirical test (Ritchie et al. 1994). For example, a student might contact a meteorologist at their local National Weather Service Office to test the viability of their constructed meaning while trying to find harmony and rationality in what they are attempting to understand. An example of a student submitting their knowledge to an empirical test might be by ground-truthing satellite derived temperatures of their area with a thermometer outside of their classroom.
Direct-readout satellite ground stations are laboratory tools. They can help students to think more critically, evaluating, not merely accepting, theory and methods of scientific investigation. Students are provided with the power to explore realistic and scientifically relevant, real world problems. They are required to construct and reconstruct meaning as they frequently encounter unanticipated consequences and evidence that counter their understanding. In other words, no two satellite images are alike.
Students must be able to explore, to solve problems with many solutions, to be wrong, and to engage in debates in which they are forced to justify their reasoning (Berger et al. 1994). Utilizing direct-readout satellite ground stations in the classroom can teach students how to think as a scientist would, with conditional reliance on existing information, based on the best available and carefully scrutinized evidence (i.e.; a satellite image). Students working with the ground station assume the role of novice scientist, developing and testing hypotheses, articulating a defense for their problem statement and design, entertaining several hypotheses simultaneously; testing and evaluating the evidence for each; and where possible, ruling out alternative hypotheses. Direct-readout satellite ground stations are a prime example of a technology where there can be (in interpretation) more than one "right" answer. Some educators and administrators are nervous about this scenario as they have never dealt with the possibility of two right answers to a question; traditional practices are now able to be challenged.
Students must be able to argue persuasively for their position with a qualified degree of confidence, in a manner that permits questioning, critical thinking, and possible acceptance of hypotheses and conclusions by the student's peers (Berger et al. 1994). Through the experience gained in the use of the ground station, students come to understand that scientific theories have withstood the challenge of testing and re-testing by the scientific establishment and that theories are open up to challenge. Students can become more original and flexible thinkers as they explore realistic problems beyond discovering what is already known (maybe just to the student), and imagine possible alternatives. Students can become more skeptical as they consider what information is and is not necessary for solving problems and how their solutions are justified (Pinet 1989).
Analysis of Teacher Impacts
Upon the programs completion of its third year, this research has shown that advanced computer technology in the classroom works best if the teacher is initially highly motivated in the application of this technology. A majority of the teachers that participated in this survey have demonstrated this ability. Their professional development and hard work has not gone unnoticed by their peers and EXPLORES! staff. Many teachers have been asked by their administrations to serve on technology committees and conduct in-services for their peers. These same teachers, as well as a host of others, have gone on to become mentors for the EXPLORES! program as they are invited back to the workshop each summer to help with the growing number of teachers and media specialists becoming involved with the program each year. Other teachers have been promoted to technology or media specialists positions in their districts.
Fosnot (1989) advocates that science courses need to be designed as to provide "an experiential base with emphasis placed on concrete, active exploration and investigation in a specific content area." In other words, science courses need to be problem based and inquiry oriented. The EXPLORES! program strives to provide such an approach through the use of the world's largest laboratory, the atmosphere. Teachers participating in the EXPLORES! program have been given a tool that engages themselves, as well as their students, in higher level thinking processes, using tasks, problems, and discussions on a level that they can relate to; a level based on their experience with the atmosphere. Teachers have confronted their traditional schemes of pedagogy with new techniques and methods. They have been re-introduced into the role of a student and reconstructed themselves as learners. For example, teachers will stop right in the middle of a lesson just to address an incoming satellite image as it slowly unveils itself on the monitor. Some have noticed that this "grabs" the attention of the students and enables the teacher to address the image real-time. In doing this, the teacher is also actively participating in the learning process since they have no previous knowledge of the image. They are able to discover scientific principles along with their students; in essence, becoming learners along with their students. In other words, they aren't able to "look up the answer" before hand. This pedagogical process enables the teacher to address their current techniques and begin to question and investigate other methods of instruction, while shying away from the traditional cookbook approach.
It is interesting to note that the teachers are most excited when "playing" on their new ground stations and seemed to be the least interested when having to sit down for a thirty minute lecture. Some teachers even stay "after hours" just to get some extra time in on their new ground station as antenna connections at the workshop site are limited. This high level of involvement is an example of why teachers cannot expect students to be excited about sitting down and taking notes when they are not even interested in doing this activity themselves. For example, Fosnot (1989) argues that "if teachers were taught science through a textbook, lecture, and demonstration approach for most of their years of schooling, even though they may have been taught about the need to teach it through a discovery, hands-on, process approach in their methods courses, most will revert back to what their teachers did." Teachers involved with the EXPLORES! program have been forced to address this notion and "go back to school", re-thinking their teaching and learning strategies as participants in a workshop and as educators in the classroom.
It should be realized that positive changes in the professional development of these teachers did not occur by simply altering the variables of how teachers feel and act. Rather, these documented changes required the respondents to learn, re-think, and adopt different knowledge, thoughts, and practices related to their teaching. They have been able to do this because they have been given the opportunity to be a scientist rather than emulate one. For example, during the workshop, they were never told what to do or how to do it (with the exception of setting up their ground station), but they were given the chance to explore, investigate, and question their beliefs and practices. They have been given the chance to construct a model that is viable to their teaching methods by becoming a student again; by becoming a learner again.
When science is taught in such a fashion that both teachers and students are involved in the process and product of their education, they feel good about themselves and what they are trying to accomplish. By creating the opportunity for teachers to become involved in programs such as EXPLORES!, the possibilities for professional development (as per the survey responses) are endless. Teachers have been able to grow in ways that they never thought possible as they have been given the chance to prove to themselves that technology is not something to be afraid of, but is something to be proud of. They are now able to inquire into their teaching and think critically about their work.
Conclusions
In summary, the EXPLORES! program was created with the goal of upgrading the interest, confidence, and skill level in Florida school basic science and mathematics courses. Each weather satellite ground station serves as an experimental tool to teach and apply science concepts as basic as the scientific method to those as complex as orbital mechanics and global climate change as well as to broaden general science content.
It is realized that in order for teachers and students to adequately represent what they have learned, they must be skilled in some form of representation (Eisner 1993). Multimedia presentations are emphasized during all aspects of teacher training and curriculum development, including slides, movies, videotapes (AM Weather, which was recently taken off the air on PBS, and The Weather Channel), magazines and newspapers (local papers, USA Today, the New York Times, and newspaper curricula such as "How the Weatherworks"), in addition to the more conventional methods of chalk, overheads, paper handouts, and most importantly, observation!
As the state of Florida embarks upon programs which increase the emphasis on environmental and natural science components for the curricula in elementary, middle, and high school classrooms, meteorology becomes an increasingly effective tool for training our future scientists. The EXPLORES! program strives to prepare students to meet these challenges in both critical and intellectual ways. Students are encouraged to observe, hypothesize, experiment, and speculate about different conceptions of the subject matter at hand. It is expected that the program will contribute to the enhancement of the earth and space science curricula in schools nationwide and become a model program for others to emulate.
Teachers participating in the survey have been forced to address the notion of change and think critically about their teaching styles and about the implications of technology in their classroom. They have been given a tool that enables them to implement new and experimental strategies. In essence, these teachers have become reflective practitioners (Schon 1987). Schon (1987) defines a reflective practitioner as a teacher "who develops a capacity to reflect in and on his or her actions in a way that goes beyond statable rules, not only be devising new methods of reasoning, but also by constructing and testing new categories of understanding, strategies of action, and ways of framing problems." Through these methods, teachers involved with the EXPLORES! program are now able to construct their own practice by drawing on personal knowledge and professional knowledge. Within this framework, methods of inquiry useful to pedagogy have been established as all teachers involved with the program are beyond the initial trauma of job survival and can reflect on their work in a critical manner.
Knowledge constructions are viable as long as they meet a set of personal goals. Accordingly, the challenge for teachers wishing to mediate the learning process is to establish and maintain contexts in which given understandings are seen by students to be inadequate to meet particular goals (Tobin et al. 1994). Change can occur when a learner is dissatisfied with present understandings and has identified intelligible alternatives that are coherent with other understandings and enable them to meet personal goals. Teachers are encouraged to take on a role that requires students to examine the viability of their ideas.
It should not go unnoticed that when implementing a precollege outreach program such as EXPLORES!, high levels of expectation and flexibility are imperative to its success. This research has shown that teachers and school districts must be willing to accept the technical and professional challenges bestowed upon them. These challenges include teachers implementing the ground station into their classrooms and school districts taking the necessary steps for the timely installation of antennas and satellite dishes.
University-level science departments must take responsibility for demonstrating how we expect future scientists to be trained. It is our responsibility to pass along new research methods, techniques, and equipment and provide the infrastructure to offer continuing education to elementary, middle and high school teachers as needed. The process of scientific discovery is not a static one; it is one that is constantly evolving. As such, our training tools and methods need to be continually evolving. If we wish to have scientists trained to address the complexities associated with the earth-atmosphere system, we must expose them to science as it really is, a continuous EXPLORATION!
APPENDIX A
Direct-Readout Satellite Reception
Environmental satellites, equipped with a variety of sensors, monitor the Earth, its atmosphere, and the space environment, and transmit the information back to Earth electronically. These analog electronic signals are received by a ground station, and displayed as digital images on a computer monitor. These images can display gradients of the Earth's topography and temperature, cloud formations, the flow and direction of winds and water currents, the formation of hurricanes, the occurrence of an eclipse, and a view of the Earth's geography. Both visible and infrared images can be obtained. Visible images sense reflected sunlight from the Earth's surface and infrared images sense the temperature of objects such as clouds, and the Earth's surface. The capability to acquire information directly from environmental satellites produced the name direct-readout.
Two types of environmental satellites provide direct readout service, geostationary and polar orbiting. Their orbits and sensor equipment determine the scope and image resolution the satellites provide, as well as the equipment necessary to receive data. The United States, Japan, Russia, India, and the European Space Agency currently operate environmental satellites that have direct readout capability. China operates environmental satellites but has discontinued direct-readout services.
Geostationary spacecraft orbit the Earth at a speed and altitude that allows them to hover continuously over one area of the Earth's surface, providing continuous coverage of that area. U.S. coverage is provided by Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES). One of the GOES communication functions is to provide Weather Facsimile (WEFAX) services. WEFAX data, with a resolution of 8 kilometers, consists of retransmissions of processed GOES images, polar orbiter data, and other meteorological information (figure 1). With its seemingly stationary position relative to Earth, a result of its orbit 22,238 miles (37,000 kilometers) above the Earth's equator, GOES provides views of almost a third of the Earth's surface. Images from GOES combined with images from Japanese, Indian, and European Space Agency geostationary satellites provide a global view of the Earth's environment between sixty degrees north and sixty degrees south latitude.
Polar-orbiting satellites orbit approximately 600 miles (1000 kilometers) above the Earth, providing a more detailed look at a smaller area. Their orbital paths cross almost directly over the poles, and their sun-synchronous orbits mean that they cross the equator at the same time each day. United States polar orbiters, called TIROS satellites, provide low resolution imagery called Automatic Picture Transmission (APT) (figure 2). APT is real-time data, with a resolution of 4 kilometers, that can be obtained when the satellite is within the receiving area of a ground station antenna. High Resolution Picture Transmission (HRPT) from polar-orbiters has a data resolution of 1.1 kilometers, but requires more costly equipment to obtain it.
Figure 1 Geostationary Satellite Image
Either WEFAX or APT services enable the user to obtain "live" reception of substantial environmental data. A dual system that accesses both types of data provides a comprehensive and continuous picture of the environment. Continuing technology improvements and cost reduction make that feasible and possible in a low-cost system.
Figure 2 Polar-Orbiting Satellite Image
The configuration shown in Figure 3 is for a dual (APT and GOES-WEFAX) ground station. Schools participating in the EXPLORES! program currently operate APT and dual systems.
Figure 3 Components of a Direct-Readout Satellite Receiving Ground Station
APPENDIX B
General Interest Questions
1. Do you currently teach weather as an independent unit in your classes? If yes, which classes and how long is the unit? (i.e.; week, month, semester)
2. Have you ever used weather satellite imagery in support of teaching weather in your classes?
3. Have you ever invited guest speakers who were meteorologists or from weather-related professions (TV Weathercaster, local National Weather Service personnel, local University faculty) to speak to your classes? If yes, how were they received by your class? If no, are there any reasons why you have not?
4. Have you ever received any assistance (data, promotional materials, posters, public service materials, educational packets/brochures) from local meteorologists or those employed in weather-related professions? If yes, what did you receive and did you find them useful as applications in the classroom?
5. Have you ever solicited or received meteorological support from personnel at the "next" educational level? In other words, if you are an elementary school teacher, have you received help from middle school teachers. If you are a middle school teacher, have you received help from high school teachers, and if you are a high school teacher, have you received help from community college, college, and university professors? If yes, explain the nature of the assistance. If no, why not?
6. Would you be interested in participating in, or helping develop such a network (as described in question 5)? Why or why not?
APPENDIX C
Sample Workshop Agenda
Wednesday 3 August (arrival)
evening 7:30 - 9:30 PM
preregistration session for all participants; no host social at Knights Inn (exit #70 on I-95, not exit #70A!)
All sessions will be held at the Brevard Labs unless indicated below.
All new Florida EXPLORERs! should sign up for one 90 minute evening ground station training session during the week (offered Monday - Thursday evenings). There will be four instructors available at these small-group, hands-on sessions to assist you.
Anyone who might be interested in an evening tour of the Melbourne office of the National Weather Service should see one of the instructional staff on Wednesday evening. Small groups will be accommodated according to demand. The Melbourne NWS office is one of the most modernized offices in the country, and includes Doppler radar, lightning detection network equipment, and advanced satellite processing facilities.
We will interrupt this schedule quite frequently to accommodate changes in needs as determined by workshop staff and/or participants. In addition, if NASA schedules a launch or return of a Space Shuttle during our workshop as we now anticipate, we will make every effort to break in time to view such activities by arrangement with NASA.Daily Activities
Weekdays at Brevard Labs
(8/4 and 8/8 - 8/11)
Thursday 4 August - Day One
morning ALL
7:30 - 8:30 Breakfast on your own8:45 - 9:45 Welcome Session - Frank Kinney (Executive Director, TRDA)
Greg Komara (FIRN)
Kevin Kloesel and Paul Ruscher (FSU)
Definition of Groups (1, 2, 3)
9:45-10:45 What is a weather satellite ground station, anyway?
10:45-11:00 break
11:00-12:15 Introduction to weather satellite imagery interpretation
afternoon
12:15-1:30 lunch
1:30 - 5:30 Group 1: Hands-on ground station work
Ground station components
Software/Hardware overview
Group 2: Hydrologic cycle
Clouds
Using the newspaper in the classroom
Group 3: Computer orientation - DOS & FIRN
evening dinner on your own 5:30-7:30
7:30 - 9:00 ground station training for small groups
Competencies for Day One
Everyone should come out of day one with some feeling for the capabilities of a direct readout weather satellite ground station.
Friday 5 August - Day Two
7:00 - 8:00 ALL: Breakfast
8:00 Leave for KSC for all day tour
all day tour KSC 9:00 AM to 4:30 PM
You should see the exhibit entitled Satellites and You otherwise you are free from 4:30 PM to 6:30 PM to tour gift shop or gawk at rockets or ... Then: IMAX Movie (back at KSC) The Blue Planet (time TBA)
This tour is highly recommended, according to last year's group. Educators will explore the Teacher Resource Center, Exploration Station, the parachute facility, the booster rocket assembly facility, tour Spaceport by bus (going places the public tour generally does not get to see), etc. Your morning will be taken up by the bus tour, and you will get into the Exploration Station about 2:00, after you've eaten at the cafeteria on the premises (bring lunch money).
evening dinner on your own 7:15 til...
By then you will have felt that you have done enough so we won't press on until the next morning!
Competencies for Day Two
We only hope that you gain an appreciation for what it takes to get rockets and satellites in orbit and take some time to reflect on what you have seen so far.
Saturday 6 August - Day Three
morning only ALL
8:00 - 9:00 Breakfast on your own
9:15 - 12:30 Group 1: Computer sessions - DOS & FIRN
Group 2: Hands-on ground station work
Ground station components
Software/Hardware overview
Group 3: Using the newspaper in the classroom
Hydrologic cycle
Clouds
afternoon
Recreational activities at Brevard Labs include golf, volleyball, and motorized boats or plan your own activities.
evening dinner on your own
Competencies for Day Three
Using the Newspaper in the Classroom
The Hydrologic Cycle
Hardware Components of the Ground station
Installation of Software on Your Computer
Sunday 7 August - Day Four
morning
Are you kidding? You are on your own!
afternoon
1:30 - 4:45 Group 1: Using the newspaper in the classroom
Hydrologic cycle
Clouds
Group 2: Computer sessions - DOS & FIRN
Group 3: Hands-on ground station work
Ground station components
Software/Hardware overview
evening dinner on your own
7:30 Hank Brandli or other guest lecturer on the importance of weather satellites
Competencies for Day Four
Running the weather satellite ground station software to receive imagery
Running the weather satellite tracking software
Putting together the antenna
Interpretation of features on the satellite pictures being received
Utilization of ground station in your teaching - generate some ideas of your own
Use of FIRN for electronic mail, group conferencing
Monday 8 August - Day Five
morning ALL
7:30 - 8:30 Breakfast on your own
8:30 - 9:00 wake-up briefing
9:00 - 10:00 Hurricane tracking
10:00 - 10:20 break
10:20 - 12 cloud identification and weather feature identification
afternoon catered picnic lunch on grounds at Brevard Labs
2:00 - 6:00 lab session (in groups)
evening small group sessions as needed
Competencies for Day Five
Visible vs. infrared satellite pictures
Infrared picture enhancement
Archival techniques
Troubleshooting
Tuesday 9 August - Day Six
morning ALL
7:30 - 8:30 Breakfast on your own
REST OF DAY: INTENSE GROUND STATION OPERATIONS
Advanced imagery interpretation
Weather instrumentation for schools
Curriculum integration with state and national goals and objectives
Weather data on the network
Competencies for Day Six
Advanced troubleshooting - who ya gonna call?
Keeping your ground station operating and use in the classroom - your ideas
Wednesday 10 August - Day Seven
morning ALL
7:30 - 8:30 Breakfast on your own
Project ATMOSPHERE! presentations - demonstrations of curriculum
The Florida Student Weather Network (FSWN)
More weather on the network
EVEN MORE INTENSE SATELLITE GROUND STATION OPERATIONS
Evening banquet
Competencies for Day Seven
Weather on the network
File transfers
Developing the buddy system
Curriculum Development ideas
Thursday 11 August - Day Eight
morning ALL
7:30 - 8:30 Breakfast on your own
9:00 - 12:00 Final ground station work; assignments; workshop closes!
Competencies for Day Eight
You will be able to say, "Yes I know how to do this when I go back to my school!"
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Steven M. Graham was born on July 7, 1970 in Boston, Massachusetts. He graduated from Plantation High School in 1988 and went on to attend Broward Community College where he received an Associate of Arts degree in 1990. He was awarded a Bachelor of Science degree in Meteorology from the Florida State University in 1993 and began his graduate studies in Science Education that same year.
In 1992, while attending the Florida State University, Steven was hired as Project Assistant for the Florida EXPLORES! program and was promoted to Senior Project Assistant in 1993. Throughout his tenure with Florida EXPLORES!, he has been an instructor for workshops held in conjunction with the program and has co-authored publications appearing in journals and conference proceedings. Also, throughout his undergraduate and graduate studies, he has been a teaching assistant for various undergraduate meteorology courses at the Florida State University and has been an Associate Teacher for a semester at Lincoln High School where he taught Earth/Space Science and Physics.
A more detailed description of his vitae may be acquired by contacting the Florida State University Department of Meteorology.